Latin Subjunctive Demystified: Ultimate Guide for Students

If you want to master Latin, then you need to understand the subjunctive mood. The Latin subjunctive is used to express wishes, to talk about hypothetical situations, to convey indirect questions, and so much more.

Because of its versatility, the subjunctive often intimidates students. But don’t worry: I have lots of practice teaching the subjunctive and I will break things down so that you can focus on each usage one by one.

We will start with an overview of what the subjunctive is before moving on to concrete examples of this mood in action. Soon you will know the 11 most important usages of the subjunctive!

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What is the Latin subjunctive?

The subjunctive is a verbal mood that can express possibility, desirability, uncertainty, or conditionality, among other things.

We use the indicative mood to state facts, but we use the subjunctive to talk about actions somehow removed from reality.

This might mean that we are trying to control events by making a wish or giving a command. Or perhaps we are talking about what would happen if something else were to happen.

It’s important to note, though, that the Latin subjunctive appears in instances where we would never use the subjunctive in English. (Yes, there is an English subjunctive, even if we often don’t notice it.)

For instance, Latin uses the subjunctive in indirect questions and result clauses, where English uses the indicative.

The Latin subjunctive is quite complex, so it is best to learn one usage at a time and gradually build up your understanding of the mood as a whole.

This is especially true because the subjunctive doesn’t have one universal translation. The way you translate the subjunctive will depend on what type of subjunctive it is.

So pay close attention to the contexts in which each subjunctive appears. Especially helpful are what we can call “trigger words” – words that signal a certain type of subjunctive. (These words will be in red throughout this post.)

Latin teachers and scholars divide the uses of the subjunctive into two general categories:

1. Independent uses (where the subjunctive can stand on its own as the main verb)
2. Dependent uses (where the subjunctive is part of a subordinate clause and can’t stand alone)

We will start with independent uses, but first, let’s talk about tenses.

Latin Subjunctive Tenses

The Latin subjunctive has four tenses: present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect.

In subordinate clauses, present and imperfect subjunctives indicate an action that is happening at the same time as or shortly after the action of the main verb. The perfect and pluperfect subjunctives, on the other hand, indicate an action that already happened before the action of the main verb.

When it comes to independent subjunctives, the tense doesn’t have as much to do with time. Instead, it expresses the verb’s closeness to reality. We will talk about this more when we are looking at specific independent uses of the subjunctive.

I have more posts on subjunctive tenses coming soon. In the meantime, my posts on individual conjugations include the endings of all four subjunctive tenses.

• 1st conjugation subjunctive endings
• 2nd conjugation subjunctive endings
• 3rd conjugation subjunctive endings
• 4th conjugation subjunctive endings

5 Independent Uses of the Subjunctive in Latin

A subjunctive is considered to be “independent” if it can stand on its own as the main verb in a sentence. As you go through the following examples, you will notice that there isn’t an indicative main verb floating around.

1. Optative Subjunctive

The optative subjunctive expresses a wish, and for this reason it can also be called the subjunctive of wishing. The name “optative” comes from the Latin verb optō “wish”.

The present subjunctive is used to make a possible wish. The best way to translate into English is “may X happen” or “I wish that X would happen”.

The common Latin phrase requiēscat in pāce, “may he/she rest in peace”, is an excellent example of the optative subjunctive.

The Christian prayer “Our Father” is also a great example of the optative subjunctive in Latin and in English. I have put the subjunctives in bold:

Sānctificētur nōmen tuum; adveniat rēgnum tuum; fīat voluntās tua, sīcut in caelō et in terrā.

Hallowed be Thy name; Thy kingdom come; Thy will be done, on earth as it is in heaven.

Prayers and other set phrases like “so be it!” preserve the old-fashioned English usage of the subjunctive in wishes. In Latin, the optative subjunctive isn’t old-fashioned at all – it’s a part of normal speech.

The tense of the subjunctive in a wish indicates the likelihood of the wish being fulfilled. Present tense is used when the desired outcome is possible, imperfect is used for wishes unfulfilled in the present, and pluperfect is used for wishes unfulfilled in the past.

This will make more sense with examples.

Soror mea veniat! = May my sister come! (present tense, possible wish)

Soror mea venīret! = I wish my sister were coming! (imperfect tense, impossible wish – my sister is not, in fact, coming)

Soror mea vēnisset! = I wish my sister had come! (pluperfect tense, impossible wish – my sister did not, in fact, come)

A wish can be intensified by the presence of the adverb utinam (“I wish, would that!”). For a negative wish, put nē at the beginning of a sentence.

Nē mihi dōnum dent! = May they not give me a gift! (present subjunctive)

Utinam Rōmam iter facere possem! = If only I were able to travel to Rome! / I wish that I were able to travel to Rome! (imperfect subjunctive)

Utinam nē urbs capta esset! = If only the city had not been captured! / I wish that the city had not been captured! (pluperfect subjunctive)

2. Jussive Subjunctive

The jussive subjunctive expresses a command. The name comes from the Latin verb iubeō, “command”.

Jussive subjunctives are in the present tense. We usually translate them into English with “let”, e.g. “Let X do Y”.

To negate the jussive subjunctive, use nē.

Nautae pecūniam ferant! = Let the sailors bring money!

Discipulus vēritātem dīcat! = Let the student tell the truth!

Nē veniant! = Let them not come!

Usually we speak of the jussive subjunctive as only existing in the second and third persons. This is because we use another term – hortatory – to refer to first person commands.

3. Hortatory Subjunctive

The hortatory subjunctive expresses a command or exhortation in the first person plural. The English translation is “let us / let’s _________”.

So, for example, sedeāmus means “let’s sit”. You are encouraging your companions to join you in sitting. The name of this subjunctive comes from the deponent verb hortor, “urge, encourage”.

The opening lines of a famous poem by Catullus contain excellent examples of the hortatory subjunctive:

Vīvāmus, mea Lesbia, atque amēmus,
rūmōrēsque senum sevēriōrum
omnēs ūnius aestimēmus assis!

Let us live, my Lesbia, and let us love,
and as for the rumors of the stuffy elders,
let us value them all at one as!

Catullus 5.1-3

An as was a small bronze coin, so in effect Catullus is saying – let’s ignore the rumors, since they are only worth a single penny.

To negate a hortatory subjunctive, use nē.

NOTE: If you are thinking that the jussive subjunctive and the hortatory subjunctive seem awfully similar, you are not wrong. Both are translated as “Let X _______”, both are negated by nē, and both include the idea of commanding. Technically the jussive is a subset of the hortatory subjunctive, so sometimes you may see them all under the umbrella term hortatory.

4. Deliberative Subjunctive

The deliberative subjunctive – as the name suggests – is used to ask what someone is supposed to do. It consequently always appears in questions.

What am I to do? What was he supposed to say? Where should you have gone?

All of these questions ask how a person is meant or supposed to behave. They can indicate genuine doubt or deliberation, but also be rhetorical exclamations expressing indignation or impossibility.

A present subjunctive asks what someone should do in the present.

Quid faciam? = What am I to do? / What am I supposed to do?

Rōmamne redeant? = Should they return to Rome? / Are they to return to Rome?

An imperfect subjunctive asks what someone should have done in the past.

Quid eīs dīceret? = What was s/he supposed to say to them? / What should s/he have said to them?

Quō īrēmus? = Where were we to go? / Where were we supposed to go?

We frequently find the deliberative subjunctive used in the first person, since people often ask themselves what they ought to do.

To negate the deliberative subjunctive, use nōn.

5. Potential Subjunctive

The potential subjunctive expresses that an action is possible or conceivable. There are many ways to translate it into English: can, may, might, could, or would are all options.

You will likely encounter the potential subjunctive most frequently in expressions involving the indefinite second person singular.

The present subjunctive refers to present time, while the imperfect refers to the past.

Crēdās hanc puellam magistram esse. = You might believe that this girl is a teacher.

Dīcerēs rēgem insānīre. = You would have said / might have said that the king was of unsound mind.

The “you” here is indefinite. The sense is that anyone, under such circumstances, might think or say the same thing.

The potential subjunctive can also appear in the first or third person, generally with regard to what someone is thinking, saying, or wishing.

Nunc ego ille hūc veniat velim. = Now I should like that man to come here.

Plautus Mostellaria 1074

Potential subjunctives are negated by nōn.

Vērane haec, adfirmāre nōn ausim. = Whether these things are true, I would not dare to affirm.

Pliny the Younger Epistulae 9.13.25

6 Dependent Uses of the Subjunctive in Latin

A “dependent” subjunctive is one that can only exist in a subordinate clause. In other words, the dependent subjunctive cannot be the main verb in a sentence.

Dependent subjunctives are introduced by some sort of trigger word, usually a conjunction. So as we go through the different types of dependent subjunctive, pay close attention to the circumstances in which each appear!

Remember – trigger words will be in red.

1. Purpose Clauses

Purpose clauses tell you why or for what purpose an action is carried out. Positive purpose clauses are introduced by ut (“in order that, so that”), while negative purpose clauses begin with nē (“lest, in order that . . . not”).

Tibi pecūniam dō ut librōs novōs emās. = I give you money so that / in order that you may buy new books. (positive purpose clause, present subjunctive)

Mīlitēs pugnābunt nē patria vincātur. = The soldiers will fight lest their country be conquered / so that their country may not be conquered. (negative purpose clause, present subjunctive)

Purpose clauses include a subjunctive in either the present or the imperfect tense. The tense of the subjunctive depends on what sequence you are in.

If you are in primary sequence (with a main verb in the present, future, or future perfect indicative), the subjunctive must be in the present tense. If you are in secondary sequence (with a main verb in the imperfect, perfect, or pluperfect), the subjunctive must be in the imperfect tense.

👉 Confused? Read all about the Latin sequence of tenses here!

Consider the two sample sentences above.

In the first sentence, the main verb is dō, a present indicative. For this reason we have emās, a present subjunctive, in the purpose clause.

In the second sentence, our main verb is pugnābunt (future indicative). This is still primary sequence, so we have another present subjunctive, vincātur, in the purpose clause.

Now let’s look at two more sentences.

Māter nātae ōscula dat nē trīstis sit. = The mother gives kisses to (her) daughter so that she may not be sad. (primary sequence, present subjunctive)

Māter nātae ōscula dabat nē trīstis esset. = The mother was giving kisses to (her) daughter so that she might not be sad. (secondary sequence, imperfect subjunctive)

In Sentence #1, the main verb – dat – is in the present tense. This requires that we have sit, a present subjunctive, in the purpose clause.

In Sentence #1, the main verb – dabat – is in the imperfect tense. This requires that we have esset, an imperfect subjunctive, in the purpose clause.

The standard way to translate purpose clauses is to use may for the present subjunctives and might for the imperfect subjunctives.

2. Result Clauses

Result clauses – shockingly! – express the result or outcome of an action. The most confusing thing about them is that they can look rather like purpose clauses. This is because positive result clauses also begin with ut (“with the result that”).

Negative purposes clauses are introduced by ut . . . nōn (“with the result that . . . not”), so at least there is no potential for confusion there.

Luckily, there are other trigger words, beyond ut, that prepare us to expect a result clause. Let’s look at some example sentences and you will soon see what I mean.

As with purpose clauses, the tense of the subjunctive in a result clause depends on the tense of the main verb. Primary sequence features present subjunctive, while secondary sequence features imperfect.

Example #1: Iūlia libellum carminum tam iūcundōrum scrībit ut omnēs eī invideant. = Julia is writing a little book of such pleasant poems that (as a result) everyone envies her. (primary sequence, present subjunctive)

Example #2: Amīcus ita celeriter fūgit ut cum eō nōn loquerer. = The friend fled so quickly that (as a result) I did not speak with him. (secondary sequence, imperfect subjunctive)

Example #3: Māter nātae tanta ōscula dabit ut trīstis nōn sit. = The mother will give her daughter such great kisses that (as a result) she will not be sad. (primary sequence, present subjunctive)

Notice that each of these sentences has an adjective or adverb of degree. Tam (“so, so much”) appears in Example #1, while Example #2 features ita (“so, thus, in such a manner”) and Example #3 has tantus, a, um (“so large, so great”).

Such trigger words are a clue that a result clause may be coming. When combined with ut, you can be sure you are dealing with a result clause (and not a purpose clause).

Remember: purpose clauses answer the question with what purpose you are doing something, while result clauses describe with what outcome you do something.

3. Cum Clauses

Cum clauses are subordinate clauses introduced by the conjunction cum (“when”). They convey information relevant to the action of the main clause (the circumstances behind it, the reason for it, etc.).

The exact translation of cum depends on the logic of your specific sentence. We can break down cum clauses into three categories.

1. Circumstantial (cum = “when” or “after”)
2. Causal (cum = “because” or “since”)
3. Adversative/concessive (cum = “although”)

In cum clauses, we can see all four subjunctive tenses. The present and imperfect indicate that the action is happening at the same time as the action of the main verb, while the perfect and pluperfect describe an action that has already happened before the action of the main verb.

The present and perfect subjunctives are used in primary sequence; the imperfect and pluperfect are used in secondary sequence.

Example #1 (circumstantial):

Cum sōl occidisset, elephantī ex Italiā fūgērunt. = When/after the sun had set, the elephants fled from Italy. (pluperfect subjunctive indicating prior action in secondary sequence)

Example #2 (causal):

Cum sōl occiderit, elephantōs vidēre nōn possumus. = Because the sun has set, we cannot see the elephants. (perfect subjunctive indicating prior action in primary sequence)

Example #3 (concessive):

Cum sōl occideret, Anna tamen librum legēbat. = Although the sun was setting, Anna nevertheless was reading a book. (imperfect subjunctive indicating simultaneous action in secondary sequence)

In Example #1, the cum clause is describing the circumstances under which the elephants fled from Italy. First the sun set, then they fled.

In Example #2, the cum clause specifies the reason we can’t see the elephants. The sun set, and it is now dark – and this causes our eyesight to fail.

Finally, in Example #3, the cum clause is setting up a contrast. The sun was setting, so it was getting dark and harder to see – but despite this, Anna kept on reading.

Cum clauses are flexible and their precise nuances can be subjective. Whether you translate cum as “after” or “because” or “although” depends on your interpretation of the sentence and how you think the action of the cum clause relates to the action of the main clause.

For example, I have translated Example #1 as a circumstantial clause that stresses the sequence of action. First the sun set, then the elephants fled. But maybe you interpret it as a causal clause: the elephants intentionally waited until it was dark to flee so, because the sun had set, they finally left.

Both interpretations are valid, and we would need more context to know which one fits better.

PRO TIP: We often find tamen “nevertheless” near concessive cum clauses, so this is a reliable sign that you should translate cum as “although” or “even though”.

4. Conditions

A conditional statement has two parts: an if-clause (the protasis) and a then-clause (the apodosis). I guarantee that you use conditions all the time in your everyday speech – you just may not have known the terminology!

There are three types of condition in Latin that require the use of a subjunctive. The subjunctive appears in both the if-clause and the then-clause.

1. Future less vivid / should-would conditions describe something that is unlikely to happen, but still might. In Latin, the present subjunctive conveys this unlikelihood. In English, we typically translate as “If X should happen, then Y would happen.” This is where the name “should-would” comes from.
2. Present contrafactual or contrary-to-fact conditions discuss a situation that is not happening in the present. In English, we say: “If X were happening [but it is not!], then Y would happen.” In Latin, the imperfect subjunctive is used.
3. Past contrafactual or contrary-to-fact conditions deal with a situation that did not happen in the past. In English, we would say: “If X had happened [but it did not!], then Y would have happened.” In Latin, the pluperfect subjunctive conveys this scenario.

The if-clause in Latin is introduced by sī (“if”) or nisi (“if . . . not”). So when you see one of these trigger words, be on the lookout for a subjunctive!

Example #1 (future less vivid condition):

Sī aquam sacram bibant, eōs nōn iuvēmus. = If they should drink the sacred water [they may or may not], we would not help them.

Example #2 (present contrafactual condition):

Sī aquam sacram biberent, eōs nōn iuvārēmus. = If they were drinking the sacred water [but they are not], we would not help them.

Example #3 (past contrafactual condition):

Sī aquam sacram bibissent, eōs nōn iūvissēmus. = If they had drunk the sacred water [but they did not], we would not have helped them.

Conditional statements are complex, and there are more details than I can include in this overview of the subjunctive. If you would like to learn more, I have a post all about Latin conditions coming soon!

5. Indirect Questions

Indirect questions cause lots of consternation among my students, mostly because it is hard to see why they would be in the subjunctive. First, some definitions.

If I ask, “When did you arrive?” that is a direct question. But if you go to your friend and say, “Livia asked when I arrived”, that is an indirect question.

You are relaying my question, reporting it indirectly. Your friend knows that I asked when you arrived, but they did not hear the question directly from me: instead it came indirectly through you.

In Latin, indirect questions have their verbs in the subjunctive. As we saw with cum clauses, the present and imperfect tenses indicate action at the same time as the action of the main verb, while the perfect and pluperfect indicate an action prior to the action of the main verb.

Consider the following pairs of direct and indirect questions.

Example #1 (simultaneous action):

Direct question: Quandō venīs? = When are you coming?

Indirect question (primary sequence): Nesciō quandō veniās. = I do not know when you are coming.

Indirect question (secondary sequence): Nesciēbam quandō venīrēs. = I did not know when you were coming.

Example #2 (prior action):

Direct question: Quis cēnam parāvit? = Who prepared dinner?

Indirect question (primary sequence): Rogō quis cēnam parāverit. = I ask who prepared dinner.

Indirect question (secondary sequence): Rogāvī quis cēnam parāvisset. = I asked who had prepared dinner.

Indirect questions are introduced by question words such as cūr (why), ubi (where), utrum . . . an (whether . . . or), and interrogative pronouns and adjectives.

The preceding main verb may be a verb of questioning such as rogō or quaerō, but it might also be a verb of knowing, saying, thinking, or perceiving.

There is no future subjunctive in Latin, so if you want to ask what someone will do after the action of the main verb, then you need to use a compound form. We call this the active periphrastic, and it combines the future active participle with a form of the verb sum.

Here is an example of the active periphrastic in action in an indirect question.

Example #3 (subsequent action):

Direct question: Quid dē elephantīs dīcēs? = What will you say about the elephants?

Indirect question (primary sequence): Audiam quid dē elephantīs dictūrus sīs. = I will hear what you will say / are going to say about the elephants.

Indirect question (secondary sequence): Audīveram quid dē elephantīs dictūrus essēs. = I had heard what you would say / were going to say about the elephants.

Just like conditions, indirect questions deserve their own post. Hopefully I will get around to this soon!

6. Relative Clauses of Characteristic

The last type of subjunctive that we will look at in this post is the relative clause of characteristic.

👉 Not sure what a relative clause is? Then read this guide to relative pronouns first!

Relative clauses in the indicative state facts about their antecedent. Relative clauses of characteristic, in contrast, tell you what kind of person or thing the antecedent is.

They tell us what is (or might be) characteristic of a given noun. Since the focus is on the person or thing’s character or potential, not on concrete facts, the verb is in the subjunctive.

Consider the following sentences.

Discipulus quī verba Latīna nōn discit Vergilium legere nōn potest. = The student who does not learn Latin words cannot read Vergil. (regular relative clause, indicative)

Discipulus quī verba Latīna nōn discat Vergilium legere nōn potest. = The sort/type of student who does not learn Latin words cannot read Vergil. (relative clause of characteristic, subjunctive)

In the first sentence, I am speaking of a particular student who does not memorize Latin words. This student exists; the relative clause states a fact about his behavior.

In the second sentence, I am making a general statement. If a student doesn’t bother to learn Latin words, they won’t be able to read Vergil. I don’t have a particular student in mind: instead, I am emphasizing that a student of the sort who ignores vocabulary learning cannot successfully read a Latin text.

The relative clause is describing a characteristic sort of behavior, not factual actions.

Relative clauses of characteristic are also used in general expressions about the existence, or non-existence, of certain people or things. They also appear when the antecedent is undefined or unspecific.

Suntne fēlēs quae Latīnē loquantur? = Are there cats that speak Latin?

Nēmō erat quī mihi vēritātem dīceret. = There was no one who would tell me the truth. / There was no one to tell me the truth.

If you would like to read more about relative clauses of characteristic, then I recommend consulting §535 of Allen and Greenough’s, my favorite Latin grammar.

Final Thoughts on the Subjunctive

This post includes a long list of subjunctive uses (eleven in total!), so don’t worry if you can’t remember everything all at once. Focus on each usage one by one.

Once you feel comfortable with the optative subjunctive, you can move onto the jussive subjunctive. Only after you can recognize cum clauses should you move on to conditions. And so forth.

If there is one thing that you take away from this post, let it be this: pay attention to trigger words. We often overlook conjunctions such as ut and sī, but they are crucial to breaking down Latin sentences into comprehensible segments.

For example, if you see ut, you should be automatically primed for a subjunctive to come next, and you know it will be a purpose clause or a result clause. You can split the sentence before the ut and then tackle each half separately.

Also watch out for context clues such as utinam (a sign you are dealing with a wish) or tamen (often a sign of a concessive cum clause).

In short, memorize the context in which each type of subjunctive appears. Eventually, if you keep practicing, subjunctives will become second nature to you.

This post is a general overview of the subjunctive. I wanted to give you an overall sense for this complex mood, and for this reason I didn’t go into every teeny-tiny detail and exception.

I have passed over things like relative clauses of purpose, indirect commands, fear clauses, and mixed conditions. If you want to explore the subjunctive even more thoroughly, then I recommend Allen and Greenough’s, my favorite Latin grammar. It has pages and pages of detailed notes!

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